Foundations

What is a favela

A working definition of the word — how it is used in Brazil today, where it came from, and why no single description holds for every case.

In Brazilian Portuguese, favela refers to a type of urban neighborhood that grew outside the formal planning, titling, and infrastructure systems of the city around it. The defining features are practical rather than aesthetic: the housing was built incrementally by its residents, often on land they did not legally own at the time of construction; the street layout was not planned by a municipal authority; and public services — water, sewerage, electricity, refuse collection, postal delivery, policing — arrived late, partially, or not at all. By the 2020s most large favelas in Brazil have piped water and metered electricity, but the gap with adjacent formal neighborhoods in service quality, regulatory recognition, and land tenure remains the structuring feature.

Favelas are part of the city, not separate from it. They are typically embedded inside the urban fabric — on hillsides, along rivers and rail corridors, between motorways, on the periphery of new developments — and are economically and socially interwoven with the formal city through commuting, commerce, kinship, and labor markets. To describe a favela as a "slum" in the sense of an isolated zone of destitution misses the point. Most are mixed-income neighborhoods with established businesses, churches, schools, and civic associations, even where conditions for some residents remain precarious.

Etymology: from a shrub to a neighborhood

The word reached the urban vocabulary by way of a military campaign. In 1897 the Brazilian army defeated the millenarian community at Canudos, in the interior of Bahia, after a long and costly siege. Soldiers had camped on a hill known locally as Morro da Favela, named for the favela shrub that grew there. Veterans of Canudos, returning to Rio de Janeiro and waiting for back pay and resettlement that did not come, built shacks on a similar hillside above the city center. The hill they occupied — Morro da Providência — became known as Morro da Favela, after the one they remembered from the campaign. Over the following decades the proper noun lost its capital and became a common noun. By the 1920s newspapers in Rio used favela to describe self-built hillside settlements generally.

The etymology is worth dwelling on because the word's history is the history of how Brazil has imagined these neighborhoods: born of a military episode, named for a thorn, attached first to one hill in one city, and only later generalized into a national category and a global stereotype.

How Brazilian institutions define it

There is no single legal definition of favela in Brazilian federal law. Different agencies use different working definitions, which is one reason population figures vary.

IBGE: from aglomerado subnormal to favelas e comunidades urbanas

From the 1991 census until 2023, Brazil's national statistics agency, the IBGE, used the technical category aglomerado subnormal (informal cluster). In January 2024, after consultation with residents' movements and researchers, it replaced that label with Favelas e Comunidades Urbanas, returning the word favela to official statistics; the IBGE stated that the underlying identification criteria were rewritten in plainer language but not changed in substance. Under the older wording, an aglomerado subnormal was a settlement of at least fifty-one housing units occupying or having recently occupied land owned by others, arranged in a disorderly pattern, and generally lacking essential public services or with irregular streets and lot sizes. The category is descriptive and is meant to be operational for census enumeration; it is not a legal status that confers rights or obligations. The IBGE refined this definition across the 1991, 2000, 2010, and 2022 censuses. The 2022 round, published under the new name in November 2024, counted 16.4 million people in 12,348 favelas — up from 11.4 million in 6,329 settlements in 2010, a change that reflects both real growth and better mapping. See Census and demographics and The largest favelas in Brazil.

Municipalities: comunidade and other working terms

City governments often prefer the term comunidade (community), which residents themselves frequently use. The city of Rio de Janeiro maintains its own register of favelas and loteamentos irregulares (irregular subdivisions) through its planning bodies; São Paulo distinguishes between favelas, loteamentos irregulares, and cortiços (tenement-style multi-family dwellings) in its housing surveys. The categories do not map cleanly onto each other, and a settlement can move between them as legal and physical conditions change.

Residents: comunidade, morro, quebrada

Within favelas, residents typically refer to their own neighborhood as a comunidade. The word favela is widely used by residents in some contexts and refused in others; the question of who calls a neighborhood what, and when, is itself politically charged. In Rio, morro (hill) is a common everyday substitute. In São Paulo and elsewhere, quebrada functions similarly, denoting periphery neighborhoods that may or may not technically be favelas in the IBGE sense.

What favelas have in common, and what varies

The features that recur across favelas are structural rather than visual.

• Origin in self-construction. Housing was built by residents, usually in stages: a single room first, additional rooms and floors added as money and family allowed. This produces the characteristic vertical, dense, organic-looking built form.
• Irregular tenure at the time of building. Land was occupied without formal title. Over time, some residents have obtained titles through state regularization programs, judicial recognition (usucapião), or purchase, while others continue to hold property through documented private agreements that have no force in the public registry.
• Late or partial state infrastructure. Streets followed the houses, not the other way around. Water, electricity, and sewerage arrived after the neighborhood was already populated, often through irregular connections that were later regularized.
• Embedded location. Most favelas are not on the outer edge of the metropolitan region. They are inside the city, in places where formal development was difficult or had been refused: steep hillsides, flood-prone river margins, contested or stigmatized land.

What varies is almost everything else. Favelas range in size from a few dozen households to neighborhoods of well over a hundred thousand people. They include both ground-level neighborhoods and dense vertical settlements on slopes. Some are several generations old and effectively indistinguishable from the surrounding city in building quality; others are recent occupations of vacant land. Some have continuous and reliable public services; others do not. Some are dominated by drug-trafficking groups, others by militias, others by neither. To speak of "the favela" as a single condition is to flatten this variation.

What favela is not

Three confusions recur in foreign coverage and are worth naming directly. (For how favelas compare with informal settlements in other countries, see Favelas and informal settlements around the world.)

First, a favela is not a refugee camp or temporary shelter. Most favela housing is masonry, multi-story, and decades old. Property changes hands by sale and inheritance, often at substantial prices in well-located communities. In Rocinha or Paraisópolis a small apartment can transact for tens of thousands of reais. The economic life of a favela includes property markets, rental markets, established commerce, and tax-paying small businesses.

Second, a favela is not synonymous with destitution. Favela populations include people across a wide income range, though concentrated below the national median. Household income data from the IBGE Continuous National Household Sample Survey (PNAD Contínua) and from Data Favela surveys conducted by the Instituto Locomotiva consistently show that favela residents work, pay rent, and consume; the absence of services is a separate question from the absence of money.

Third, a favela is not the same thing as a zone controlled by an armed group. Drug-trafficking groups and militias are present in many but not all favelas; their reach varies, their relationship to residents is contested, and conflating the neighborhood with the group misreads both. A favela is a kind of neighborhood. The armed-group question is a separate question about how the Brazilian state has and has not exercised its monopoly on force.

Why the definition matters

The word is doing political work whenever it is used. Calling a neighborhood a favela can stigmatize residents in employment, credit, and policing. It can also unlock entitlements: special urban-upgrading budgets, expedited titling programs, and protections under federal housing law. The 2017 land regularization framework (Law 13.465/2017, known as REURB) explicitly addresses informal settlements, and which neighborhoods qualify depends on which administrative category they sit in. The shift to comunidade in much official discourse has both genuine motives — respecting how residents name their own places — and strategic ones, as the older word carries decades of negative connotation.

This site uses favela throughout, deliberately, as the established term in English-language scholarship and journalism on Brazil and as the word most readers will recognize. Where the choice of word is itself part of the story — as in policy texts, residents' associations' self-naming, or contested IBGE methodologies — that is named in the text.

What remains contested

Three definitional questions remain open.

The first is where a favela ends. A favela that has been substantially urbanized, with regularized lots and full services, may still be called a favela by residents, neighbors, and the press while no longer meeting the IBGE's technical criteria. The 2022 IBGE methodology attempted to address this by expanding the criteria, but the borderline cases are not resolved.

The second is how to count residents. Census enumeration in densely built, vertical, and sometimes hostile-to-outsiders environments is hard, and the 2010 figures for several Rio favelas were widely contested. The 2022 round used updated cartography and on-the-ground partnerships in many communities; even so, civil-society organizations such as Data_Labe and the Observatório de Favelas continue to argue that official counts undercount the population.

The third is whether the word should be replaced. Some residents' associations and academic groups advocate retiring favela in favor of território popular or comunidade; others argue that the word should be reclaimed rather than abandoned, on the grounds that the underlying conditions persist regardless of the label. The disagreement is real and ongoing.